35f ALICE. Lamont.
- the lion and the lamb in the
prophecy of old, so the fishing
red and textbook are chum-
bly together in this yuir
. 1922 at the summer scsaion
”MW of California, which
W the playground of the
h t Ind proceeded to demon‘
' I fit! peradvcnture of a doubt
nlllte oil and water. recreation
leholarship do mix, and with
results.
j summer session at this 1.05
‘ -- university was established in
O
Mecca of the West. combining mental
stimulus with beauty of environment.
has become a well established instltu-
tion and the rapid growth of the sum-
mer session furnishes abundant proof
of its utility.
Summer Session Opened
0n the First of This Month
Tile session opened July 1. As is
usual the courses—there ‘are 170
grouped into twenty-eight different de-
partments—are destined first of all for
teachers who wish to increase their
professional skill, to extend their
knowledge in a chosen field or to qual-
ify in new subjects. They also aim
to be of service to school superin-
arses
gardless of the number of co
elected. The faculty includes not only
members of the regular faculties of the
university but also a number of men
of letters and science from other unl-
versitles in the Hnlted States and
Cage ”railroads are cooperating by
lowflring rates for? the summer. Uni.
versity authorities figure that the
total cost of the course. including tui-
tion. textbooks, laboratory fees. board,
room and laundry will vary from $85
to $154.50, according to the. require-
menu of the individual student.
Those 170 courses offered—incident-'
ally thirty-two more than last year—-
range, alphabetically. from agriculture,
AESIHETlC.
DANCING
of SUMMER
SESSION.
.11.. They Learn They Dance .. w -.
In" Far West Summer School
miller: or English tociindren up to
15 years of we and will'rprovide an
additional class for chfldren‘about to
enter school. Teachers engaged in
this work will study particularly the
place of English in the American!”-
tion program. sources of.ins'tru’ctional
‘material. Englishms related to the oc;
cupational, civic and 1:13in life of
foreigners. and the direct method of.-
r
teaChlng. . ~ .
California itself has a large unas-
simiiated foreign multitude in her
midst and that non-English speaking
population must be reckoned with.
'Acéording to the census of 1920 her
percentage ’of illiterate: of 10 'years of
age and over was 3.3 per cent. In
19m it was 3.7 per cent. The percent-
age of native white found illiterate
was .4; that of foreign born whites.
10.5: that of negroes. 4.7 per cent. Of
all males of 21 years and over; 4' per
cent. were found to «be illitern e: of
women 21 and over, 3.6 per cent. In
the city of LosAngcles. the 1920 cen-
sus showed the'hlative born whites to
make up 75.4 per cent. of the rpopula~
lion: foreign born White; 19.4 and the
remainder Indians, Chinese and Japa-
nese.
Agricultural and Business
Courses Given Leads
Much attention will be paid to agri-
culturepincludlllg ornamental garden-
ing for school and home grounds and
nature study. There also will be a
‘number of excellent business courses.
including accounting. bookkeeping.
typewriting. elements of marketing
and history and principles of money
and banking. Vocational, industrial
and continuation education.korganiza-
lion and administration .of part time
schoolsand problems of teaching in
such schools will be considered.
1918. and in the half (li‘l'J'lt‘ in illlt'
the registration has boosted list-If rum
“3 to 1.843 stilllctl'~¢ List your, \\'ll.tll
compared favorably with otllvl‘ sum-
-mer schools in the cmlllll'y. l'lllllilllK
probablyamong the first it'll. This
year the authorities expect [7) Admin-
Inter mbre education to .lt l.-.l .t 1.33".
It is a somewhat rulila‘ul wining--
from the old order for it Stair univl-r-
'oity to establish a brunch S‘Hl mil-ls
. from the source, but the experiment
has proved a success, and the Sliiiill-
om Branch of the ('llEvt-l‘w‘ity of (‘Illl‘
‘fornia. with it! (Mn lvulltlivl s and
‘campus in Lot»: Angeli-.4, Hut llllll'lr'!
It ISN
I
By WILLIAM M‘MURTRIE SPEER.
. OMEBODY u fcw (:“nllil‘ll‘s zlgo
.. o wrote "The luv: is an exact
>— scleccc." Evvry now and then
2. a Bar Association int-cling m- .l
'Coastllutlonal Convention
molemnly repeats this vcner-lhle legal
.ilction.
A legal fiction is sotllctlllnl: tllllf
if. lawyers and Judzns :Irc (-X.’L‘Cl'-ll to
1..qu to be so and to assert to he 3.).
but which is not the fact. A good
mple of a legal fiction is this state—
'Ine'at that law is “on 0x1 2 sch llx'i'.‘
Every little while, however, some
opinion or decision of the mural
throws it judicial monkey wrench ilgto
‘the'worltlng npplimtlon‘ul this still?-
went. Such opinions add an uncon-
scious and unintentional humor 1., the
court reports. .
ppeal Case Shows
Fallacy of the Maxim
An example of this is what the .\p-
1pellnte Term has to say about an
appeal entitled:
“Philip Hutt. pizlinfif‘lkrespnndent, v.
Samuel Hangman and Harry Grusllow-
Ilky, copnrtnors doing business under
the firm name and style of llausman
Av Grunhowslty, defendants—appointnts."
Every few years the Legislature or
. a commission or :1 Judicial committee
' codlfles. clarifies and condenses into a
half dozen large volumes or thirty or
forty small volumes the hum of the
flute of New York under headings like
the Penal Law. the School Law, the
‘ Village Law. Real Plpperty. Personal
. moped-1y, Prisons, Health, Highways.
e.
(Anybody is supposed id be able to
m th‘tbu law on any general subject
firm to the appropriate volume.
“it; out the proper pages from the
‘” intruding the clear and un-
' statement of this exact
We.“ At least tint is the theory
8",”l‘nornnce of the law excuses no
N
:«ill‘n'llo‘ly
1,.
a.
m. presumption Is that everybody
W! the law except the judges them-
' If all the judges knew the law
would be no occasion for Appel-
‘h Courts because the decision of one
”I would be the same as the de-
M of any other Judge. the law be-
an exact science and everybody
it. There is never any‘snb-
. . difference between physicists
m the law of physlm or of astron-
‘ about the position and move-
. .‘ of the stars or of chequts about
will explode and what will not
use all physicists, astronomers
chanlstr know the laws of phys-
gjntroaomy and chemistry.
oh};
tl-lldo-nts, superviwrs graduate stu-
«lv-lvzs. lllzxinrul'uiuatcs who wish to
profit by the opportunity to take
«ours-ls which ”my are unable. to get
into lllc ordinary sclmlzlsiicyenr, prop-
l-rly rt-i-ullllllcndr-d high school grad-
Ilutt-s about to clltv‘r the university
abut ll".~lll‘9 to broaden their preparation
and also “housewives. graduate nurses,
social Work-rs. Alllt‘r‘lCflanillloll work-
ers. students of public health, and to
rill adults who are qualified to pursue
with profit any course glVI‘Il. whether
or not they are engaged in teaching
III‘ study."
The tuition
C
Tll- theory of the law. however, is
that \lllllt‘ ignorance of tho ’lnw ex—
(‘Ubt‘s no layman, judges urt- liable to
make lllisinkes; hence Appellate
i‘uut‘is.
Thus it is not impossible that tll‘:
Appellufu'l‘crm should reverse. the City
Court or the Municiml Court and that
the Appellate Division should reverse
the Appellate Term and the Court of
Appeals point out the errors of ill:
Appv-llute Division thus affording the
legul sympoxium of a trial court an
initial appeal, a se;ondury appeal and
t"‘l"lllt‘il questions.
As an exmllple of which is. the liti-
gation before referred to of Hull,
pluilltlff—rcspondent, against Housman
& (lruslmwsky. copurtncrs, doi‘emb
ants-:lppclllmts.
Mr. Hull agreed in writinz in April.
192:". to sell nlnctccn cases of Turkish
towels'lu Housman 8r. (lrusbowsky,
who in writing agreed to accept the
some and pay agreed prices therefor.
When the contract was made five
(aim-s of towels were “delivered and
physically received by the defendants."
Housman & Grushowsky being the
defendants. In May. 1920, the de-
f‘cmlunts notiflch’lutt that they would
not accept the towels “or pay therefor
or carry out the terms of said contract
on their part." '
The next November the plaintiff
sued the defendants in the City Court
for the «flvfiases of towels which had
be» u delivered. The plaintiff Won
that suit. Then the plaintiff brought
another suitjfor damages for the de-
fendants' failure to take and pay for
the other fourteen cases of towels.
Plea That Pla'ntifi
ould Not Sue Twice
There was no dispute about the
facts but there were two defenses
pleaded. The first defense was that_
the plaintiff had already sued, once in
the transaction and that,bc could not
sue twice. According to one decision
of the Court of Appeals this point was
Well tllKen (184 N. Y. 211) but there
were two other cases Where the same
question of law was decided the, other
way (111‘? Supp. 1074; 164 Supp. 821).
If these three decisions had been in
the same court either the majority
would have won'or the last decision
would have woofbut they were not in
the same court, which complicated the
matter and induced the Appellate
Term to write without deciding this
point, “We prefer. therefore. to pace
n to less debatable ground.” leaving
his interesting point undecided.
The second obJeCtion of the defend-
ants was that the plaintiff. upon being
advised by defendants that they would
not perform, did not give the defend-
SOUTHERN BRANCH of U 9“ CALIFORNlA
art and Americanizntion to Spanish.
swimmint. surveying, tennis and vo-~
cational education. In between ar
(‘Olli‘scfl ill the usual arts. letttrs and
Science and ill journalism, household
art and sclencc. ill Spanish literature
and ballads. in history and apprecia-
tion of music. in criminology and pros.
ventiolr of juvenile dplinqu' y and
various other live subjects.
The Amoricanianon courses are
considered so important by Les An-
uelcs city officials that they have
offered to cooperate actively by estab-
“shim: spt‘t‘l classes in a number of
the. city's public schools. The city de-
A course of six lectures of general
interest is also scheduled. The first of
these. the "Race Origin of the English
Speaking People." is to be given by
Edwin Potts Cheyncy. Professor of
European History at the University
of Pennsylvania. Prof. Edmund Kem—
per Broadus of the University of
Alberta. Canada. will lecture on “Thu
Inlurcatesllip and Robert Bridges.’
"industrial Democracy and Educa-
inn"; “John Stuart Mill. the Individ-
ualist"; “Cowboy Songs" and “Poly-
chrome Sculpture of the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries," are other
subjects announced.
unis the notice required by section 146
of the Personal Property Law.
The Personal Property Law is one
of the chapters of the Gencral Stat‘
nil-s which is supposed to be a concise
and clear compendium of the law of
the State of New York affecting per—
sonal property. That section reads:
“VVilen seller may rescind contract
or s:iic.——\Yllcre the goods have not
been dclivcrcd to the buyer, and the
buyer has repudiated the contract to
sell or sale, or has manifested his ill~
ability to perform his obligations
thereunder. or has committed a mate-
rial breach. thereof, the seller. may
totally rescind the contract or the sale
by giving notice of his election so to
do to the buyer."
The plaintiff- contended tllat this
meant that the plaintiff being the seller
could totally rescind the contract if
he so dcslned. but he did not desire
totally to rescind the contract but pre-
ferred so far to enforce the contract
as to get the damages for defendants
refusing to perform. '
The defendants contend that this
section meant that the plaintiff should
have given them notice that the con-
tract wa‘g terminatgd except for the
plaintiff's right to hold the defendant
liable for damages.
This section 146 of the Personal
Property 1.? is identical with section
65‘ of the Jniform Sales Act. which
has been adopted by a number of
States in order to secure uniformity in
the laws of commercial transactions.
Uniform Safes Tax Agrees Here
With Personal Property Law
Prof. Willlston had a hand in the
drafting of this section and wrote a
book about it. In this book he says
that the expression “totally rescind"
meant just what it says and was in-
tended to provide that the seller could
call off the whole‘ transaction by giving
notice 'of his election so to do. Prof.
“'illlston also‘ wrote that the word
“totally" reocind_was intended to dis-v
tinguish between a total rescission and
a partial rescission but continuing to
hold the buyer for damages. Prof.
Williston writes that this section was
intended to provide for the "rescission
of all obligations between buyer and
seller." which would of course include
the right to recover damages.
However, the Court of Appeals in
221 N. Y. 129 wrote that “even though‘
the defendant was at fault the con-
tract none theile'ss survived unleSs the
plaintiff gave notice of an election to
treat it as abandoned."
The Appellate Term construing this
opinion of the Court of Appeals writes
“in using the terms ‘abandoned' and
'rescinded’ did not mean to refer to
the complete abandonment for all
x
purposes which as l have pointed out
was the intention'nscribed to section
146 by Professor Vl‘illiston. . . . It
is therefore quite apparent that the
Court of Appeals has taken a different
view of the section from flint enter-
tained by .l’rofessor “’illiston."
[The above is from the opinion of
one of the Judges of the Appellate
Term. Another Judge writing an opin-
ion concurring in the result says:
“\Vere it not for what has been in-
dicated in our higher courts. I would
say that the section should be read
according to its language; t We
may not disregard the emphatic word
'totally' because we do not think the
seller requires the remedy of true
rescission. ‘
“As We are precluded from giving
the section the interpretation natur~
ally flowing from its language, it
would appear to be the most logical
course to hold that it was intended to
make general, in relation to contracts
for the sale of goods. the rule just
referred to. to the effect that a seller
who would rely on an' anticipatory
breach must declare his position.
"Furthermore, a statute is properly
interpreted according to its language.
It is not usually proper to blue pencil
t and distort its meaningibecause it
does not appear very useful. But we
seem to be precluded‘glving to the
language of this statute unnatural
meaning." . . '
When All _Is Finished .
Who Got the Towels?
The Judge who writes this concur-
ring opinion has this to say of the.
result: .
“This construction of the section.
will offer one more barrier or techni-
cality in favor of an offending buyer
in_ certain cases and against the just
claim of the seller whom his breach
has damaged. There will be one more
pitfall for the honest merchant.”
The third Judge of the Appellate
Term dissents without anopinlon...
This case can now bexappealed to
the Appellate Division. which has five
Judges. So far the City Court Judge
decided one way in accord with PrO-
fessor Williston's book. one Judge
wrote an opinion that his views were
in accord with those at the Court of
Appeals. another Judge writes . an
opinion that he is precluded from giv-
ing the ’meaning naturally flowing
from its language by reason of the
[decision of the Court of Appeals. A
third Judge dis‘sents. What the other
Judges before whom a further appeal
may come will do nobody kn s.
In the meantime the law. c ntinues
to be an exact science ‘and ignorance
of the law excuses no one. .
Copyright. 1922. by The New York Herald.‘
1‘ ~/
Prof. 0me p30» is gbrdlow and
member of the am» Physical
Society: he was graduated at the
College of Wooster i1; 190%. received
the degree of M. 8. [ram Wooster to
1909 and the degree of Ph. D. from
Princeton in 191.2.
a, lulu. Tarmacourron.
Profoshr of Physics «in‘Pfincet'on
. 7 University.
’Wlthin the last twenty-five years.
and‘chlefly within the last ten-years.
definite proof of the existence of atoms
and molecules has been found and
methods have been developed to count
and weigh them individually with very
signi 4 t results. More important
still, (has been shown that all atoms
are themselves built out of still smaller
and more fundamental units of mat-
ter. electrically charged. called positive
electrons and negative electrons.
There is very decisive evidence of the
existence of these. two fundamental
types of matter, and of the number
of each type in any given kind of
atom. To this extent the “electron
theory of matter" is no longer to be
considered as a theory but as a fact.
But when we attempt to explain all
the physical and chemical properties
of matter as due to these electrons
pr Sing
and the electromagnetic.forces be-t
tWec-n them we cubounter some sur-
prising and unexpected facts regard-
ing the behavior of electrons when in-
fluenced by other electrons or by
radiation, so that this is still a field of
hypothesis and experimentation.
When an electric- discharge at sev-
eral thousand volts is passed between
two metallic electrodes sealed into a
glzlSS vessel from which most of the
air. or (the? gas, has been pumped
the remaining gas and the Walls of
the glass vessel become luminous.
This luminosity is of different, sorts
.in different parts of; the vessel and
can easily be shown to be\d.ue to two
different agents. One of these con-
sists of something shooting out from
the cathode. or negative electrode. and
producing luminosity in everything in
its path. The other consists of some-
thing shooting out from the anode and
moving toward the cathode. also pro—
ducing luminosity of gas molecules or
other objects in its path. but luminos-
ity of a different color from that pro-
duced by the stream from the cathode.
The so-cnlled cathode rays are found
to consist of a~stream of negatively
charged parades. as is proved by the
fact that their paths are bent if placed
in an electric or magnetic field. or by
the fact that if they are caught in a
metallic cup this cup receives a charge
of negative electricity. From the
amount of bending in electric 41nd
magnetic fields of known strength.
which may be seen by the luminous
trace of the path of the stream along
a properly placed fluorescent plate. it
is possible try-calculate the speed of the
particles and the ratio of their charge
to their mass. denoted by clot. The
speed of the particles depends upon
the voltage applied to the-discharge
tube. but the value of 61m does not
depend on the voltage or the kind of
and
L
'~ direction showing that they are posi- 97 percent. of the velocity or light 0,.
discussed later. that when electrically effected their atomic disint-n:
electron and the part that.
is 1846 times heavier. Thus we go a
nexpecte ' -’ Facts
'ttl Kl . ’ Elect
tively charged partlcles,‘a.ndby an about 180,000 miles per second. Sim-
amount showin; that'the rattoof their . larly, the A particles are atoms of
charge." to ions: is characteristic of helium which haveJost two negatly.
atoms or molecules ofatbe gas lathe electrons and which consist. therefore,
tube. In other worth. they are the of four positive and tWO‘negative e'lec.
residues of the gas atoms or molecules trons. forming a. very compact and
which remain after ' electrons have stable group. Thughgve velocities as
‘ been driven out. Knowing their large as about one-tenth that of light.
charges, the bending of their. paths in The B particles set up oscillations of
magnetic and electric fields enables negative electrons in neighboring
their masses to bo‘determined. It is in atoms which they strike. and the"
this manner that atoms and molecules ’- mutton. produce radiation mud
have been individually.welshed with Y radiation or wave motion in the
high precision. ' ‘ ether. The atoms of radium do not
Positive Electrons.—When the 9031- "explode" in this manna frequently,
tively charged residue 0! an atom— In fact the occurrence is so rare that
the part left after the 1088 of an ‘elec- the chanwe are even that any given
tron—is weighed by measuring the atom will or will not explode within a.
bending of its path in an electric and time of 2_ooo years, When it do},
magn’etic held. two very significant re- explode there remains not an atom of
suits are obtained. In the 3m place, radium (atomic weight 226). but an
the weight of every atom. except 113- atom of radium emanation (atomic
drogen.‘ is an exact integral multiple weight 222) and a particle (helium,
of the weight of. a. fundamental unit. atomic weight 4)_
This unit is one-fourth the weight of In spite of their smaller velocity the
a helium atom. or one-twelfth that of A particles posses much gram:
a carbon atom. or one-sixteenth that kinetic energy than do the B particles,
of an oxygen atom. &C- ‘The unit has being nearly 7.400 times heavier. It
almost the weight of a hydrogen atom. was by mans of bombardmém of
but is less by 0.7795- This dis- nitrogen and other atoms by tins-.3 A
crepancy is accounted for by the fact. particles that. Prof. Rutherfo" has
:ion,
charged particles are grouped together yielding hydrogen as a product.
their combined mass differs Nightly When the A particles shoot cut
from the hum of their separate masses. through am such as air. their Dams
\Ve 'mny conclude, therefore. that all may be seen and photographed, Dm—
atoms are bunt up of hydrogen atomS- vided the air is saturated with mani-
\VQ Sl‘flll $06 later that the hydrogen vapor and suddenly cooled by expan—
atom its-elf consists of one negative 550m Theairmolecules in the path 0:
remains- the A particles have negative elec-
“'lllL‘l‘l is called the positive electron trons forced out of them by the action
The 905““? electron carries an eleo of the pogitjvejy charged A particle as
trlc charge equal to that of a "983‘ it comes very close. These positively
live electron, but of opposite sign. old and negatively charged residues of the
air molecula serve as nuclei for the
condensation of water vapor.
the path of the A particle is visible as
a thin line of water droplets. In air
at atmospheric pressure these paths
may be as long as 11 centimeters.
Now the diameters of air molecules
that all
93 DDsltive and
step further and conclude
atoms are built up
negative electrons.
\Vhy was not this simple integral
relationship between atomic weights
discovered long ‘ago. since chemists
have accurately known atomic weights ar .
formanyyeat-s‘.’ Simplybccnuce chem- mirtnzx‘fifiofi azboiuilioglgz (flinch)?
icul methods of determining atomic each cubic centimeter And an A -
weights measure only the arcrage ficle in traversing 11.cm of air wp:lrd
weight of a great number of atoms. pas; through about 200 600 rrol 3'
But the method described above meas- Yet many A particles 'go this fun?“
tires the weights of individual atoms. distance without changing the direc
In the case of the element chlorine. tion of their motion, and most: of then;
for instance. the chemical determina- go at least several centimeters without
tions give the weight equal to 35.46 swerving from their course. This can
times our unit; but the deflection only mean that an A particle may pass
method shows that there are three right through thousands of atom
different kinds of chlorine atoms, of without colliding with that part of an
weights exactly 35. 37 and 39. which atom in which practically all of its
are chemically inseparable and which times is “M We must. therefore
are present in such relative propor- think of all of the positive electrons
tions as to make the avenge atomic (and possibly some of the negative
weight 35.46. TheSe different kinds of electrons) of an atom as grouped \yizh-
chemically similar atoms, with differ- in a region Which is uresslvelv Sm?”
ent masses. are called isotopcs. It has as compared with the size of the atom
been found that isotopes exist in a Around this compact gym") m. an“;
large number of the chemical ele- cleus" the remaining negative 6.x“
merits. but that the weight 01 every trons are situated at Relatively lat-"e
individual atom or isotope is an exact distances—distance. comparable with
multiple of that of the fundamental the atomic radius.
unit. . “With all the heavy
If pesitive electrons. or the‘massive trons and only some of the neoative
part of hydrogen atoms. are parts of electrons constituting this nucleati: it
the structure of all atoms we might is evidently positively charged. A}; A
excect to be able to break up 1193“” particle is also positively charged-with
p )sitive cloc-
E l c‘ "1 L?” t
Atomic
Number
3. known charge. Prof. Rutherford
”suggested that a collision between
'them. inditmted by a sharp bend in
the path of the A particle as it passes
through the air. may be due simniv
ft the effect of the repulsive rel-c1:
between these two charges when tth
come very near together. Darwin cal-
culated on this hypothesis the frac‘
tion of all the observed Ccficctions of
+ Electrons
in Nucleus
.. Elections
in Nucleus
—- Electrons
outside
Nucleus
hydrogen
H
helium
lithium
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
neon IO
mercury
)
i .
IO
II
12
14.01
IO
A particles shooting through air
any other substance. which should
within any specified angular l
When this calculation. was L‘JmDJX‘OLl
with the experimental‘smcasurcmunts
ol deflections through various angles
it was found that there was exact
agreement only provided the force be?—
tween the A particle and ti)»: . uclcus is
taken to vary inversely as. the $511.. re
of the distance between the. and
pro ‘idcd the charge of the man:
H
O
N
to
VON-b
the atom is taken equal (in elPCiF-Wf‘.f
units) to its atomic number:
atomic number of an element is .~
order in the periodic table—i. c, 1
for hydrogen. 2 for helium, 3 f9:
lithium, &t‘_ 2
This conclusion was verified y an
entirely independent method. V‘l ‘ten a
beam of X-ray passes through sub-
stances sonfe of its energy i—. ab-
stracted and sent out in all direclion‘s.
The amount. character and dislzibu-
tion of this scattered radiation have
been exactly accounted far by ascrib-
- ing the scattering to the action of the
electrons outside the nuclei of the
atoms. These electrons are acceler-
ated by the electric forces in the X-ray
ébeam. and as a result of their accelv
eration give rise to the scattered ra-
diation. Sir J. J. Thornson calculated
the proportion of the energy of’ an
'x-ray beam smttered by each nega-
tive electron in'its path. Dividing the
observed amount of scattering by this
gives the number of negative electronsc'
taking part in the scattering. Divid-
ing this by the number of atoms gives
202 the number of scattering electrons per
atom. which is found equal to.its
204 124 atomic number. But the number of
. i scattering electrons (electrons outsitfe
_... the nucleus) must obviously equal the
12
stalemate
I “
\i comm mt»
.14
16
co
' oo
(9‘
IO
II
' 20
2I
22
H
coo,
I 17
I 18
I 19
120
122
197
I98
199
200
esseesj
gas in the vessel or the material of
the electrodes. It is a definite con-
stant about 1846 times larger than the
ratio of the charge to the mass of hy-
drogen Jone ‘ liberated , by electrolysis.
Thus,"if the charge on one of these
particles ifi equal t’6‘5theychargflvon a
hydrogendon (aewe sh‘ali peels-the
. case); thenflnheee ‘p'articim must be
1846 times , lighter .. thanjliydrogen
atoms. ".l‘h‘eseparticles. which consti-
tute the cathode rays; are‘the nega-
tive electrons. They may. be driven
out of metals by raising the teInpera—
ture. or by ewoeingto ultraviolet light
or' Xgrayl. or by intense bombard-
ment, or by. chemical ». actions. ‘&c.
Their properties, as regards mass and
charge, are the same however they are
liberated, and they’must be considered
as=one of the fundamental units of
which matter" is composed.
Magnetic andjEIectric Fields
‘ ‘ alleflect Anode Ray:
The anode rays arenalso deflected
by 'm'agnetic and
«g.
_ mentions velocities. By the bending
i of their paths in eleQric and magnetic
electric *fieldsrin a 'trons‘whic
p05itive charge of the nucleus. in elec-
tronic units. thus verifying the pre-
\‘ious conclusion regarding the nuclear
charges of atoms. ' f
Finally. a relation between the
atomic number of an element and the
vibration frequency of the radiation
constituting its X—ray spectrum was
discovered by Hoseley. It an be ex—
pressed rather accurately by saying
that the square foot of the frequency
of any particular type of-X-radiatiorl
is directly proportional to the atomic
number of the radiating element. This
has been satisfactorily" accoungd for
only by supposing’ that the atomic
number of air element is equal to the
electronic charge on its 'nucleus. i. ew
to the m of postive over negative
electrons in its nucleus.
Am Watt—The foregoing
evidmoe and numb additional evidence
leads wtheconchmion that the va-
rious chomiéal elements have atoms
constituted as shown in the following
fields. or brother-methods it is found molfi‘vhlch contains only a few ex-
thaj; the B particles. are negative elec- amnion. Those elements bracketed to<
' ‘ deities as large as senior are We;
atoms into hydrogen. This has ac-
tually been 'done by Prof. Rutherford
in the case of nitrogen, aluminum and
a number of other elements.
Liaw {Ween-ans Are Arranged in
. Agents by fiawedorduewad
Thus we have both direct and in-
direct evidencerthat atoms are struc-
tures built: out of positive and nega-
tive electrons. The next question l3.
“How are these electrons arming-l in
the various atoms?".. A good‘deal is
known. about this arrangement. .as I
shall proceed to indicate. but there is
much more which is still unknown.
The Nuclear Structure of Atoms—:
Radium and the other radlooactive ele-
ments owe their unusual properties to
the fact that'they emit positively and
negatively charged particles. called A
and B particles mince-lively, with tre-
I-
Norwalk Chronicler